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1994-05-15
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Chapter 1
GETTING STARTED
WHAT IS AN IDENTIFIER
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Before you can do anything in any language, you must at least
know how to name an identifier. An identifier is used for any
variable, function, data definition, etc. In the programming
language C, an identifier is a combination of alphanumeric
characters, the first being a letter of the alphabet or an
underline, and the remaining being any letter of the alphabet,
any numeric digit, or the underline. In the case of some
compilers, a dollar sign is permitted but not as the first
character of an identifier. It should be pointed out that even
though a dollar sign may be permitted by your C compiler, it is
not used anywhere in this tutorial since it is not in general
use by C programmers, and is not even allowed by most compilers.
If you do not plan to write any portable code, you can use it at
will if you feel it makes your code more readable.
Two rules must be kept in mind when naming identifiers.
1. The case of alphabetic characters is significant. Using
INDEX for a variable name is not the same as using index and
neither of them is the same as using InDeX for a variable
name. All three refer to different variables.
2. According to the ANSI-C standard, at least 31 significant
characters can be used and will be considered significant by
a conforming ANSI-C compiler. If more than 31 are used,
they may be ignored by any given compiler.
WHAT ABOUT THE UNDERLINE?
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Even though the underline can be used as part of a variable name,
and adds greatly to the readability of the resulting code, it
seems to be used very little by experienced C programmers. A few
underlines are used for illustration in this tutorial. Since
most compiler writers use the underline as the first character
for variable names internal to the system, you should refrain
from using the underline to begin a variable to avoid the possi-
bility of a name clash. To get specific, identifiers with two
leading underscores are reserved for the compiler as well as
identifiers beginning with a single underscore and using an upper
case alphabetic character for the second. If you make it a point
of style to never use an identifier with a leading underline, you
will never have a naming clash with the system.
It adds greatly to the readability of a program to use descrip-
tive names for variables and it would be to your advantage to do
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Chapter 1 - Getting Started
so. Pascal programmers tend to use long descriptive names, but
most C programmers tend to use short cryptic names. Most of the
example programs in this tutorial use very short names for that
reason, but a few longer names are used for illustrative purposes.
KEYWORDS
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There are 32 words defined as keywords in C. These have prede-
fined uses and cannot be used for any other purpose in a C
program. They are used by the compiler as an aid to compiling
the program. They are always written in lower case. A complete
list follows;
auto double int struct
break else long switch
case enum register typedef
char extern return union
const float short unsigned
continue for signed void
default goto sizeof volatile
do if static while
In addition to this list of keywords, your compiler may define a
few more. If it does, they will be listed in the documentation
that came with your compiler. Each of the above keywords will be
defined, illustrated, and used in this tutorial.
WE NEED DATA AND A PROGRAM
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Any computer program has two entities to consider, the data, and
the program. They are highly dependent on one another and care-
ful planning of both will lead to a well planned and well written
program. Unfortunately, it is not possible to study either
completely without a good working knowledge of the other. For
that reason, this tutorial will jump back and forth between
teaching methods of program writing and methods of data
definition. Simply follow along and you will have a good under-
standing of both. Keep in mind that, even though it seems
expedient to sometimes jump right into coding the program, time
spent planning the data structures will be well spent and the
quality of the final program will reflect the original planning.
HOW THIS TUTORIAL IS WRITTEN
-----------------------------------------------------------------
As you go through the example programs, you will find that every
program is complete. There are no program fragments that could
be confusing. This allows you to see every requirement that is
needed to use any of the features of C as they are presented.
Some tutorials I have seen give very few, and very complex
examples. They really serve more to confuse the student. This
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Chapter 1 - Getting Started
tutorial is the complete opposite because it strives to cover
each new aspect of programming in as simple a context as possible.
This method, however, leads to a lack of knowledge in how the
various parts are combined. For that reason, the last chapter is
devoted entirely to using the features taught in the earlier
chapters. It will illustrate how to put the various features
together to create a usable program. They are given for your
study, and are not completely explained. Enough details of their
operation are given to allow you to understand how they work
after you have completed all of the previous lessons.
Throughout this tutorial, keywords, variable names, and function
names will be given in boldface as an aid to the student. These
terms will be completely defined throughout the tutorial.
RESULT OF EXECUTION
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The result of executing each program will be given in comments at
the end of the program listing, after the comment is defined in
about the fourth program of chapter 2. If you feel confident
that you completely understand the program, you can simply refer
to the result of execution to see if you understand the result.
In this case, it will not be necessary for you to compile and
execute every program. It would be a good exercise for you to
compile and execute some of them however, because all C compilers
will not generate exactly the same results and you need to get
familiar with your own compiler.
At this point, you should load and run =================
FIRSTEX.C if you have not yet done so, to FIRSTEX.C
see that your C compiler is properly loaded =================
and operating. Don't worry about what the
program does yet. In due time you will understand it completely.
Note that this program may give you a warning that printf() is
undefined. Whether or not you get the warning depends on your
compiler and how it is set up. At this point, you can completely
ignore this warning. We will cover the reason for the warning
later in this tutorial.
A WORD ABOUT COMPILERS
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All of the example programs in this tutorial will compile and
execute correctly with any good ANSI compatible C compiler. Some
compilers have gotten extremely complex and hard to use for a
beginning C programmer, and some only compile and build MS
Windows programs. Fortunately, most of the C compilers available
have a means of compiling a standard C program which is written
for the DOS environment. You should check your documentation for
the capabilities and limitations of your compiler. If you have
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Chapter 1 - Getting Started
not yet purchased a C compiler, you should find one that is
ANSI-C compliant, and that generates a DOS executable.
A DISCUSSION OF SOME OF THE FILES
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LIST.EXE
This file will list the source files on your printer for
you with the filename and line numbers. To use it, simply type
LIST followed by the appropriate filename. At the user prompt,
enter the command LIST FIRSTEX.C now for an example. C source
code is given in Chapter 14 for this program along with a brief
description of its operation. After you have completed your
study of C, you will have the ability to read and understand the
source code for this program.
PRINTALL.BAT
This is a batch file that will call the above LIST.EXE file once
for each of the example C programs, printing all of the files out.
If you want a hardcopy of all of the files, enter the command
PRINTALL at the user prompt and watch as your printer fills about
100 sheets of paper with C programs.
THE \ANSWERS DIRECTORY
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There is a directory on the distribution disk named ANSWERS which
contains an answer to each of the programming exercises given at
the end of the chapters. You should attempt to do original work
on each of the exercises before referring to these answers in
order to gain your own programming experience. These answers are
given for your information in case you are completely stuck on
how to solve a particular problem. These answers are not meant
to be the only answer, since there are many ways to program
anything, but they are meant to illustrate one way to solve the
suggested programming problem.
The answers are all in executable files named in the format
CHnn_m.C where nn is the chapter number, and m is the exercise
number. If more than one answer is required, an A, B, or C is
included following the exercise number.
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